High-resolution x-ray computed tomography (CT) is a widespread imaging modality with many research and development, as well as industrial, applications. CT systems with three-dimensional (3-D) spatial resolution down to and exceeding one micrometer are available commercially. These systems are widely used for research and find increasing use in industrial applications. See [Scott_2004]-Scott, David et al, A Novel X-ray Micro tomography System with High Resolution and Throughput For Non-Destructive 3D Imaging of Advanced Packages, ISTFA 2004: 30th International Symposium for Testing and Failure Analysis; Boston, Mass.; USA; 14-18 Nov. 2004, 94-98; and [Stock_2008]-Stock, S. R, Recent advances in X-ray microtomography applied to materials, Int. Mater Rev, 1008, 53, 129-181.
X-ray CT scanning systems generate three-dimensional tomographic volumes of the samples from a series of projections at different angles. Projections are also referred to as 2-D projection images, or projection data. The tomographic volumes are generated from the projection data using software reconstruction algorithms based on back-projection and other image processing techniques to reveal and analyze features within the samples.
X-ray CT has a long track record in integrated circuit (IC) failure analysis. More recently, CT is being used in oil and gas rock analysis to determine porosity and model flow characteristics [Ingrain Digital Rock Physics]. This application has been added to its list of industrial applications. Currently, rapid adoption of high-resolution CT for mining applications is occurring starting with research institutions ([Miller_2009]-Miller, J. D et. al, Liberation-limited grade/recovery curves from X-ray micro CT analysis of feed material for the evaluation of separation efficiency, Int. J. Miner. Process, 2009, 93, 48-53) and has found its way into industrial laboratories with initial focus on tailings analysis for floatation.
Tailings from mining operations are materials left over from processing after most of the valuable minerals have been extracted. Typically, the tailings particles are very small in size—the sizes are of the order of a micrometer to about 100 micrometers (μm) or less for platinum and gold operations and can reach down to about a micrometer. Platinum bulk concentrations in tailings are only on the order of 0.5 parts per million (ppm) currently (compared to a few ppms for the raw ore). While the bulk concentrations are very small, the precious metals are not distributed uniformly in the tailings. In fact, they are found in micron sized grains highly localized in space. Left over precious metal is not extracted due to its small particle size, inclusion or association with non-floating minerals, or other inefficiencies of the separation (floatation) process. However, the increasing energy and extraction costs as well as increasingly lower grade of raw ore have created large economic incentives for mining companies to characterize tailings samples better in order to recover precious metals more efficiently through the optimization of separation processes, for example.
Currently, the main scientific instrument used to characterize these tailings is the Mineral Liberation Analyzer (MLA). It is accepted as a standard for accurate mineralogy analysis. The MLA integrates a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) having automated sample handling and analysis software dedicated for mineralogy applications.
For tailings analysis, the tailings particles are dispersed and fixed in epoxy such that they are physically separated from each other. These samples are then cut and polished for study under the SEM. First, a back scattered electron (BSE) image of the surface is acquired with high spatial resolution. The signal acquired in the BSE image is proportional to the density and atomic number of the minerals contained in these particles; and the images are depicted with different shades of grey. To accurately determine the mineral composition inside these particles, multiple EDS spectra are obtained and analyses of these spectra provide the basis for determination of minerals.
During the last 10 years, the analysis of tailings with MLA has been attributed with the increased efficiency of extraction of platinum from ore and has led to a decrease of platinum concentration in tailings from ˜1 ppm to 0.5 ppm.